Key facts & rules

• Conduction: energy transfer through a solid via vibrating particles/free electrons — metals are best conductors.
• Convection: energy transfer in fluids — heated fluid rises (less dense), cool fluid sinks.
• Radiation: energy transfer by infrared waves — no medium needed; black/dull surfaces best emitters and absorbers.
• Specific heat capacity (SHC): energy needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (or 1°C).
• Latent heat: energy needed to change state WITHOUT temperature change.
• Temperature in Kelvin: T(K) = T(°C) + 273.
• Gas laws: temperature must be in KELVIN.
• Thermal expansion: most substances expand when heated; used in thermostats, bimetal strips.